Use of self-help groups by people living with HIV in Central America.

Self-help groups (SHGs) for people living with HIV (PLHIV) are organizations created by the community to provide individuals with security, affection, improved self-esteem, and a sense of belonging. However, SHGs have also been used by the government to help implement HIV control policies. This study aimed to identify the characteristics associated with the use of SHGs by PLHIV and the routes and displacement patterns adopted by users. An analytical cross-sectional study was conducted based on data collected in six Central American countries during 2012. Using a list of SHGs, a random sampling was conducted in two stages. Firstly, the SHGs were selected. Then, the selected SHGs were visited and every third user who attended the SHG was surveyed. Logistic regression models were used to identify the characteristics associated with the use of SHGs and with attending the nearest SHGs. A spatial analysis was performed to identify the routes followed by users to reach the SHGs from their home communities. We found that the characteristics significantly associated with higher odds of SHG usage were country of residence and schooling level. The average and median distances traveled by users to attend SHGs were 20 and 5 kilometers, respectively. PLHIV do not use the SHGs closest to their locality, perhaps for fear of stigma and discrimination. We recommend that research on this topic use a mixed qualitative-quantitative methodology to better understand utilization decisions, user expectations, and the degree to which these are being met.

Use of self-help groups by people living with HIV in Central America / Uso de grupos de autoayuda por personas que viven con el VIH en América Central / Uso de grupos de autoajuda por pessoas vivendo com HIV na América Central

Self-help groups (SHGs) for people living with HIV (PLHIV) are organizations created by the community to provide individuals with security, affection, improved self-esteem, and a sense of belonging. However, SHGs have also been used by the government to help implement HIV control policies. This study aimed to identify the characteristics associated with the use of SHGs by PLHIV and the routes and displacement patterns adopted by users. An analytical cross-sectional study was conducted based on data collected in six Central American countries during 2012. Using a list of SHGs, a random sampling was conducted in two stages. Firstly, the SHGs were selected. Then, the selected SHGs were visited and every third user who attended the SHG was surveyed. Logistic regression models were used to identify the characteristics associated with the use of SHGs and with attending the nearest SHGs. A spatial analysis was performed to identify the routes followed by users to reach the SHGs from their home communities. We found that the characteristics significantly associated with higher odds of SHG usage were country of residence and schooling level. The average and median distances traveled by users to attend SHGs were 20 and 5 kilometers, respectively. PLHIV do not use the SHGs closest to their locality, perhaps for fear of stigma and discrimination. We recommend that research on this topic use a mixed qualitative-quantitative methodology to better understand utilization decisions, user expectations, and the degree to which these are being met.

Los grupos de autoayuda (GAA) para personas que viven con el VIH (PVVIH) son organizaciones creadas por la comunidad para proporcionarles seguridad, afecto, mejor autoestima y un sentido de pertenencia. Sin embargo, el gobierno también ha utilizado los GAA para ayudar a implementar políticas de control del VIH. Se buscó identificar las características asociadas con el uso de GAA por PVVIH y las rutas y patrones de desplazamiento adoptados por los usuarios. Este es un estudio analítico transversal basado en datos recogidos en seis países centroamericanos en 2012. A través de una lista de GAA, se construyó un muestreo aleatorio de dos etapas. Primero, se seleccionaron los GAA. Luego, los participantes recibieron una visita, y se evaluó cada tercio de ellos. Se utilizaron modelos de regresión logística para identificar las características asociadas al uso y visitas a los GAA más cercanos a los usuarios. Se realizó un análisis espacial para identificar las rutas que los voluntarios tomaron para llegar a los GAA en sus comunidades de origen. Se constató que las características significativamente asociadas con mayores probabilidades de uso de los GAA fueron el país de residencia y la escolaridad. Las distancias medias y medianas recorridas por los usuarios para visitar los GAA fueron de 20 kilómetros y 5 kilómetros, respectivamente. Las PVVIH no utilizan los GAA más cercanos a su casa, tal vez por miedo al estigma y a la discriminación. Se necesitan investigaciones sobre este tema que utilicen una metodología mixta cualitativa-cuantitativa para comprender mejor las decisiones de uso, las expectativas de los usuarios y el grado en que se están atendiendo.

Grupos de autoajuda (GAAs) para pessoas vivendo com HIV (PVHIV) são organizações criadas pela comunidade para proporcioná-los segurança, afeto, melhor autoestima e senso de pertencimento. No entanto, o governo também tem usado os GAAs para ajudar a implementar políticas de controle do HIV. Buscamos identificar as características associadas ao uso de GAAs por PVHIV e as rotas e padrões de deslocamento adotados pelos usuários. Este é um estudo analítico transversal realizado com base em dados coletados em seis países da América Central em 2012. Através de uma lista de GAAs, uma amostragem aleatória em dois estágios foi construída. Em primeiro lugar, os GAAs foram selecionados. Em seguida, eles foram visitados e cada terceiro de seus participantes foi avaliado. Foram utilizados modelos de regressão logística para identificar as características associadas ao uso e às visitas aos GAAs mais próximos aos usuários. Foi realizada uma análise espacial para identificar as rotas que voluntários tomavam para chegar aos GAAs em suas comunidades de origem. Verificamos que as características significativamente associadas com maiores chances de uso dos GAAs foram país de residência e escolaridade. As distâncias médias e medianas percorridas por usuários para visitar os GAAs foram de 20 quilômetros e 5 quilômetros, respectivamente. As PVHIV não utilizam os GAAs mais próximos de onde moram, talvez por medo de estigma e discriminação. Recomendamos que as pesquisas sobre este tema utilizem uma metodologia qualitativa-quantitativa mista para entender melhor as decisões de utilização, as expectativas dos usuários e o grau em que eles estão sendo atendidos.

[Collateral effect of transnational migration: the transformation of medical habitus]. / Efecto colateral de la migración transnacional:la transformación del habitus médico.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze health practice transformations in health providers in Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: . We used qualitative data to explore transnational health practices of men with migration experience to the US, healthcare professionals in Mexico from eight rural communities, and Mexican providers in US. Data used came from a study that explored transnational health practices in the context of migration. RESULTS: Healthcare professionals provided care to migrants through remote consultations or via a family member, and in-person during migrants' visits or by health-care professionals relocating to migrants' destination com-munities in the US. The remote consultations mainly caused three changes in the field of medical practice: providing care without a patient review or clinical examination, long-distance prescription of medications, and provision of care mediated by a family member. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in their medical practice shifted roles of healthcare professionals and of migrants as patients, transforming the hegemonic biomedical model in Mexico.

OBJETIVO: Analizar las transformaciones de la práctica médica en proveedores de salud en México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se utilizaron datos cualitativos para explorar las prácticas de salud transnacionales de hombres con ex-periencia en migración a los Estados Unidos y profesionales de la salud en México de ocho comunidades rurales y pro-veedores mexicanos en Estados Unidos. RESULTADOS: Los profesionales de la salud brindan atención a los migrantes a través de consultas remotas o a través de un miembro de la familia, y en persona, durante las visitas de los migrantes o por profesionales de la salud que se trasladan a las comunidades de destino de los migrantes en los EU. Las consultas a distan-cia causaron principalmente tres cambios en el campo de la práctica médica: proporcionar atención sin una revisión del paciente o un examen clínico, la prescripción a larga distancia de medicamentos y la prestación de atención mediada por un miembro de la familia. CONCLUSIONES: Los cambios en la práctica médica modificaron el rol de los profesionales de la salud y los migrantes como pacientes, lo que ha transformado el modelo biomédico hegemónico en México.

Collateral effect of transnational migration: the transformation of medical habitus / Efecto colateral de la migración transnacional: la transformación del habitus médico

Abstract Objective: To analyze health practice transformations in health providers in Mexico. Materials and methods: We used qualitative data to explore transnational health practices of men with migration experience to the US, healthcare professionals in Mexico from eight rural communities, and Mexican providers in US. Data used came from a study that explored transnational health practices in the context of migration. Results: Healthcare professionals provided care to migrants through remote consultations or via a family member, and in-person during migrants' visits or by healthcare professionals relocating to migrants' destination communities in the US. The remote consultations mainly caused three changes in the field of medical practice: providing care without a patient review or clinical examination, long-distance prescription of medications, and provision of care mediated by a family member. Conclusions: Changes in their medical practice shifted roles of healthcare professionals and of migrants as patients, transforming the hegemonic biomedical model in Mexico.

Resumen Objetivo: Analizar las transformaciones de la práctica médica en proveedores de salud en México. Material y métodos. Se utilizaron datos cualitativos para explorar las prácticas de salud transnacionales de hombres con experiencia en migración a los Estados Unidos y profesionales de la salud en México de ocho comunidades rurales y proveedores mexicanos en Estados Unidos. Resultados: Los profesionales de la salud brindan atención a los migrantes a través de consultas remotas o a través de un miembro de la familia, y en persona, durante las visitas de los migrantes o por profesionales de la salud que se trasladan a las comunidades de destino de los migrantes en los EU. Las consultas a distancia causaron principalmente tres cambios en el campo de la práctica médica: proporcionar atención sin una revisión del paciente o un examen clínico, la prescripción a larga distancia de medicamentos y la prestación de atención mediada por un miembro de la familia. Conclusiones: Los cambios en la práctica médica modificaron el rol de los profesionales de la salud y los migrantes como pacientes, lo que ha transformado el modelo biomédico hegemónico en México.

Relative Severity of Food Insecurity During Overland Migration in Transit Through Mexico.

Despite anecdotal reports of food insufficiency in the overland migration through Mexico, little is known about the frequency and extent of food insecurity during this transit. In a shelter in north central Mexico, we interviewed 95 Central American migrants traveling overland to the US regarding their experiences of food insecurity in transit. 74% experienced some degree of food insecurity, ranging from having only one meal to no food at all in one or several consecutive 24 h periods. Factors associated with relatively more severe food insecurity included more days in active transit, more severe illness impacting mobility, or travel companion illness in the prior 2 weeks. Illness was predicted by a pre-migration diagnosis of chronic disease. Understanding the factors associated with relative severity of food insecurity during overland migration can inform policies for prioritizing assistance and prevention.

Estimating the effectiveness of self-help groups on the adoption of secondary preventive measures by people living with HIV in Central America, 2012.

BACKGROUND: According to UNAIDS, the HIV epidemic has stabilized. This as a result of increased condom use and greater access to coverage for antiretroviral therapy (ART). In Central America, civil society organizations work with self-help groups (SHGs) organized in conjunction with public health services to implement interventions seeking to increase condom use and ART adherence for people living with HIV (PLH). METHOD: To analyze the effectiveness of SHGs in Central America aimed on increasing condom use and ART adherence in PLH, We conducted a cross-sectional study using a questionnaire and a random sample of 3024 intervention group and 1166 control group. Based on propensity scoring and one-to-one matching (with replacement), we formed a comparison group to help estimate the effectiveness of the above-mentioned intervention on two outcome variables (condom use and ART adherence). The internal consistency of the results was tested through weighted least squares (WLS) and instrumental variable (IV) regression. RESULTS: Although bivariate comparisons yielded differences between intervention and control group, we found no evidence that the intervention was effective; nor did we find evidence of a heterogeneous impact among countries after adjusting for propensity scoring and the IV model. The impact observed after performing raw comparisons of the indicators may be attributable to self-selection on the part of PLH rather than to the SHGs strategy. Our results demonstrate that it is imperative to use rigorous intervention evaluation methodology to validate the consistency of results. CONCLUSIONS: The intervention had no impact on the outcome indicators measured. We recommend prioritizing the allocation of economic resources for the implementation of interventions with previously proven effectiveness. We also recommend that future studies explore why the intervention failed to produce the expected impact on condom use and ART adherence.

Transnationalism and health: A systematic literature review on the use of transnationalism in the study of the health practices and behaviors of migrants.

Transnationalism explores social, economic and political processes that occur beyond national borders and has been widely used in migration studies. We conducted a systematic review to explore if and how transnationalism has been used to study migrants' health and what a transnational perspective contributes to understanding health practices and behaviors of transnational migrants. We identified 26 empirical studies published in peer-reviewed journals that included a transnational perspective to study migrants' health practices and behaviors. The studies describe the ways in which migrants travel back and forth between countries of destination to countries of origin to receive health care, for reasons related to cost, language, and perceptions of service quality. In addition, the use of services in countries of origin is related to processes of social class transformation and reclaiming of social rights. For those migrants who cannot travel, active participation in transnational networks is a crucial way to remotely access services through phone or email, and to acquire medical supplies and other health-related goods (traditional medicine, home remedies). We conclude with recommendations for future research in this area.

Primary health care utilization by the mexican indigenous population: the role of the Seguro popular in socially inequitable contexts.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the relationship between primary health care utilization and extended health insurance coverage under the Seguro Popular (SP) among Mexican indigenous people. METHODOLOGY: A cross-sectional analysis was conducted using data from the Mexican National Nutrition Survey 2012 (n = 194,758). Quasi-experimental matching methods and nonlinear regression probit models were used to estimate the influence of SP on primary health care utilization. RESULTS: 25% of the Mexican population reported having no health insurance coverage, while 59% of indigenous versus 35% of non-indigenous reported having SP coverage. Health problems were reported by 13.9% of indigenous vs. 10.5% of non-indigenous; of these, 52.8% and 57.7% respectively, received primary health care (p<0.05). Economic barriers were the most frequent reasons for not using primary health care services. The probability of utilizing primary health care services was 11.5 percentage points higher (p<0.01) for indigenous SP affiliates in comparison with non-indigenous, in similar socioeconomic conditions. CONCLUSION: Socioeconomic conditions, not ethnicity per-se, determine whether people utilize primary health care services. Therefore, SP can be conceived as a public policy strategy which acts as a social buffer by enhancing health care utilization regardless of ethnicity. Further analysis is required to explore the potential gaps as a result of SP coverage among socially vulnerable groups.

Migrants suffering violence while in transit through Mexico: factors associated with the decision to continue or turn back.

To identify and analyze the factors associated with the decision of migrants suffering violence while in transit through Mexico, to continue on their trip or turn back. Cross-sectional study combining quantitative and qualitative analyses. Socio-demographic and health characteristics, as well as types of violence and factors associated with the decision to continue on the trip, were explored for 862 migrants. 35 migrants were interviewed to explore their perceptions of migration, socioeconomic and political situations in their countries of origin, risks, violence experienced, and the decision to continue on their trip. Of the 862 migrants, 21.1% experienced violence during their transit through Mexico towards the USA. Of these, 88.5% decided to continue on their journey. This decision was positively associated with age (OR = 1.075, p < 0.05), number of children (OR = 3.161, p < 0.10), homicide rate in the country of origin (OR = 1.043, p < 0.10) and proximity to the northern border. No differences were observed by sex, schooling, days in transit and the presence of health problems. The decision to continue the journey to the United States was related to structural factors in the countries of origin, rather than risks in transit. It is necessary to implement mechanisms to promote and protect the human rights of migrants during their whole journey (origin, transit and destination).

[Persisting health and health access inequalities in Mexican indigenous population, 2006-2012]. / Inequidad persistente en salud y acceso a los servicios para los pueblos indígenas de México, 2006-2012.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze socioeconomic, health conditions and access to health services of Mexican indigenous population between 2006 and 2012. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A comparative analysis was done between indigenous and non indigenous population, using the information from th National Health and Nutrition Survey (2006 and 2012). RESULTS: 60% of the indigenous population was allocated at the poorest socioeconomic level in 2012 despite the implementation of social programs. The Seguro Popular increased its coverage from 14 to 61.9% in indigenous population. The increase observed in coverage in no indigenous population was from 10 to 35.7%. Nevertheless, no increase was observed in the utilization of healthcare services between indigenous and non indigenous population. The access to hospital services for childbirth delivery increased from 63.8 to 76.4% in indigenous population. However there is an important difference with non indigenous population (93.9%). CONCLUSIONS: The increase in the coverage of the Seguro Popular in Mexico has had heterogeneous results in the utilization of health care services. Other social programs such a Oportunidades have not had an impact to alleviate poverty in indigenous groups.

Inequidad persistente en salud y acceso a los servicios para los pueblos indígenas de México, 2006-2012 / Persisting health and health access inequalities in Mexican indigenous population, 2006-2012

Objetivo. Analizar la situación socioeconómica, de salud y acceso a servicios en población indígena de México, en 2006 y 2012. Material y métodos. Análisis comparativo entre población indígena y no indígena, a partir de información sociodemográfica y de salud de la ENSANUT 2006 y 2012. Se estimaron diferencias de proporciones o medias al comparar indígenas/no indígenas para cada año y entre 2006 y 2012. Resultados. Del total de la población indígena de México, 60% se ubica en el nivel socioeconómico más bajo. El Seguro Popular incrementó su cobertura de 14 a 61.9% en población indígena en comparación con la no indígena (de 10 a 35.7%). Sin embargo, no se observan cambios en utilización de servicios ambulatorios de salud (de 7.1 a 6.4%). La atención hospitalaria del parto en indígenas aumentó (de 63.8 a 76.4%) y persiste diferencia con no indígenas (93.9%). Conclusiones. Incrementar la cobertura del Seguro Popular presenta resultados heterogéneos en utilización de servicios de salud, mientras que el Programa Oportunidades no incide en mejoría de condición socioeconómica de población indígena.

Abstract Objective. To analyze socioeconomic, health conditions and access to health services of Mexican indigenous population between 2006 and 2012. Materials and methods. A comparative analysis was done between indigenous and non indigenous population, using the information from th National Health and Nutrition Survey (2006 and 2012). Results. 60% of the indigenous population was allocated at the poorest socioeconomic level in 2012 despite the implementation of social programs. The Seguro Popular increased its coverage from 14 to 61.9% in indigenous population. The increase observed in coverage in no indigenous population was from 10 to 35.7%. Nevertheless, no increase was observed in the utilization of healthcare services between indigenous and non indigenous population. The access to hospital services for childbirth delivery increased from 63.8 to 76.4% in indigenous population. However there is an important difference with non indigenous population (93.9%). Conclusions. The increase in the coverage of the Seguro Popular in Mexico has had heterogeneous results in the utilization of health care services. Other social programs such a Oportunidades have not had an impact to alleviate poverty in indigenous groups.

La organización de las poblaciones clave ligadas a la transmisión del VIH: una intervención para abatir el estigma; México, 2005-2009 / The organization of key populations connected to HIV transmission: an intervention to abate stigma; Mexico, 2005-2009

Una aproximación cuali-cuantitativa es la base para el análisis de los resultados del proyecto "Vida Digna", cuyo objetivo fue abatir el estigma y la discriminación en el campo de la transmisión del VIH a partir de las acciones realizadas por organizaciones de la sociedad civil durante el período 2005 al 2009, en la región mexicana llamada El Bajío. Los resultados se analizaron en los años 2009 y 2010. Las organizaciones participantes estuvieron compuestas por y para las denominadas poblaciones clave, definidas como grupos vulnerables a infectarse pero también capaces de resistir y controlar la transmisión del VIH, el estigma y la discriminación, que se constituyen en barreras importantes para la búsqueda de atención y en el control efectivo del VIH. Se describen y analizan las acciones y el fortalecimiento de las organizaciones participantes. Resaltan la visibilización de nuevos actores sociales, como las mujeres transgénero y los usuarios de drogas inyectables, y las acciones informativas dirigidas a periodistas, policías y militares para evitar la criminalización y persecución de estos grupos.

A qualitative and quantitative approach forms the base of this analysis of the results of "Vida Digna," a project aimed at abating stigma and discrimination in the HIV transmission field with actions taken by civil society organizations from 2005 to 2009 in the Mexican region of El Bajío. The results were analyzed in 2009 and 2010. The organizations involved were made up of key populations, defined as groups vulnerable to infection but also capable of resisting and controlling the transmission of HIV and the stigma and discrimination that are important barriers in the seeking of care and the achievement of effective HIV control. We describe and analyze the actions taken and the strengthening of the participating organizations. The visibility of new social actors such as transgender women and injecting drug users, as well as informative activities directed at journalists, the police and the military to prevent the criminalization and persecution of these groups, are highlighted.

[The organization of key populations connected to HIV transmission: an intervention to abate stigma; Mexico, 2005-2009]. / La organización de las poblaciones clave ligadas a la transmisión del VIH: una intervención para abatir el estigma; México, 2005-2009.

A qualitative and quantitative approach forms the base of this analysis of the results of "Vida Digna," a project aimed at abating stigma and discrimination in the HIV transmission field with actions taken by civil society organizations from 2005 to 2009 in the Mexican region of El Bajío. The results were analyzed in 2009 and 2010. The organizations involved were made up of key populations, defined as groups vulnerable to infection but also capable of resisting and controlling the transmission of HIV and the stigma and discrimination that are important barriers in the seeking of care and the achievement of effective HIV control. We describe and analyze the actions taken and the strengthening of the participating organizations. The visibility of new social actors such as transgender women and injecting drug users, as well as informative activities directed at journalists, the police and the military to prevent the criminalization and persecution of these groups, are highlighted.

[Health services in the Mixteca: use and conditions of affiliation in US-migrant and non-migrant households]. / Servicios de salud en la Mixteca: utilización y condición de afiliación en hogares de migrantes y no-migrantes a EU.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of households in the Mixteca Baja and analyze differences in affiliation with health care programs and utilization, among members of households with migrants (HogMig) and without migrants (HogNoMig) to the United States. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A cross-sectional, descriptive survey was used with heads of households in a representative sample from the Mixteca Baja of 702 homes with and without migrants to the US. RESULTS: Members of HogMig had more personal and economic resources than those of HogNoMig; they also regularly received remittances. The majority of members of both HogMig and HogNoMig did not receive benefits from the Oportunidades program or health coverage through Seguro Popular, IMSS or ISSSTE. In general, while they used the local health clinic, they often preferred to pay for private practitioners. A small proportion of those covered by IMSS or ISSSTE reported very low utilization of the health services offered by those institutions.

Servicios de salud en la Mixteca: utilización y condición de afiliación en hogares de migrantes y no-migrantes a EU / Health services in the Mixteca: use and conditions of affiliation in US-migrant and non-migrant households

Objetivo. Caracterizar a los hogares de la Mixteca baja en términos socioeconómicos y demográficos y analizar las diferencias entre miembros de hogares de migrantes (HogMig) y no migrantes (HogNoMig) a Estados Unidos en torno a su afiliación y utilización de servicios de salud. Material y métodos. Estudio transversal y descriptivo en el que se realizaron encuestas a jefes de familia de una muestra representativa de 702 hogares de la Mixteca baja con (HogMig) y sin miembros migrantes (HogNoMig) a EU. Resultados. Los integrantes de los HogMig tenían más recursos personales y económicos que los HogNoMig; además recibían remesas regularmente. La mayoría de los miembros de ambos tipos de hogares no recibía beneficios del Programa Oportunidades, ni contaba con afiliación al Seguro Popular, IMSS o ISSSTE. Generalmente utilizaban el centro de salud local, aunque frecuentemente preferían pagar médicos privados. La minoría derechohabiente (IMSS/ ISSSTE) reportó una muy baja utilización de esos servicios.

Objective. To describe the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of households in the Mixteca Baja and analyze differences in affiliation with health care programs and utilization, among members of households with migrants (HogMig) and without migrants (HogNoMig) to the United States. Material and Methods. A cross-sectional, descriptive survey was used with heads of households in a representative sample from the Mixteca Baja of 702 homes with and without migrants to the US. Results. Members of HogMig had more personal and economic resources than those of HogNoMig; they also regularly received remittances. The majority of members of both HogMig and HogNoMig did not receive benefits from the Oportunidades program or health coverage through Seguro Popular, IMSS or ISSSTE. In general, while they used the local health clinic, they often preferred to pay for private practitioners. A small proportion of those covered by IMSS or ISSSTE reported very low utilization of the health services offered by those institutions.